CHAPTER 4: BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT AS AN ECOSYSTEM

Chapter Overview

No business operates alone.

Every organization exists within a wider environment made up of customers, competitors, suppliers, financial institutions, regulators, technology providers, communities, employees, investors, logistics partners, platforms, and other actors. These relationships are increasingly interconnected, dynamic, and technologically mediated.

Traditional business analysis often describes the external environment as a collection of separate forces surrounding the firm. A systems perspective goes further. It views the business environment as an ecosystem-a network of interdependent actors that simultaneously compete, cooperate, exchange resources, influence one another, and jointly shape value creation. This ecosystem perspective is especially important in the digital and AI era. A modern e-commerce business, for example, may depend on:

• cloud providers;
• payment platforms;
• logistics companies;
• online marketplaces;
• social-media platforms;
• data providers;
• AI vendors;
• regulators;
• customers;
• suppliers.

The performance of the focal firm depends partly on the capabilities and behaviour of these external actors. This means competitive advantage no longer depends only on what a firm owns internally. It may also depend on:

• who the firm is connected to;
• how strong those relationships are;
• how effectively it participates in platforms;
• how well it coordinates with partners;
• how quickly it adapts to ecosystem changes.

This chapter therefore expands the system boundary beyond the organization itself. It examines the business environment as a dynamic ecosystem and explains how organizations must understand competition, cooperation, interdependence, platforms, technology networks, and AI ecosystems in order to develop effective strategy.

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of a business ecosystem.
• Distinguish between the traditional business environment view and the ecosystem perspective.
• Identify internal, external, and ecosystem-level influences on organizations.
• Analyze the major actors within a business ecosystem.
• Explain interdependence among customers, suppliers, competitors, complementors, and regulators.
• Understand the role of cooperation and competition in ecosystem strategy.
• Explain the importance of technology and digital-platform ecosystems.
• Analyze network effects and ecosystem relationships.
• Explain how AI ecosystems are emerging around data, models, infrastructure, applications, and governance.
• Identify strategic risks created by ecosystem dependence.
• Apply ecosystem thinking to business strategy in emerging economies.
• Evaluate how firms can create, capture, and protect value within ecosystems.

Opening Case: A Food-Delivery Company That Did Not Control Its Own Business

FoodLink is a fictional digital food-delivery company operating in several large cities. Customers use its mobile app to order meals from restaurants. At first, management believes the company’s business model is relatively simple:

• Customers order food.
• Restaurants prepare it.
• FoodLink delivers it.

However, as the company grows, management realizes that its performance depends on a much larger network. FoodLink relies on:

• restaurants;
• delivery riders;
• mapping services;
• mobile networks;
• cloud-computing infrastructure;
• digital payment providers;
• banks;
• app stores;
• social-media platforms;
• customer-rating systems;
• government regulations.

A problem in any one of these areas can affect the entire business. One weekend, a major cloud provider suffers a service disruption.

• FoodLink’s app becomes unstable.
• Restaurants cannot confirm orders.
• Riders cannot access delivery instructions.
• Customers request refunds.
• Social media fills with complaints.

A few weeks later, a new regulation requires greater transparency in rider compensation. Operating costs increase. Then a competitor signs exclusive agreements with several popular restaurant chains. FoodLink loses important offerings. At the same time, the company introduces an AI-based recommendation system intended to increase customer orders. The model performs well technically, but recommendations are weak for restaurants with limited historical data. Smaller restaurants complain that the platform favors large brands. Management now confronts several problems at once:

• technology dependency;
• platform fairness;
• restaurant relationships;
• rider regulation;
• competitive partnerships;
• customer trust.

None of these problems can be understood fully by looking only inside FoodLink. The company is not simply an independent firm. It is part of a business ecosystem. The strategic question is therefore not only:

“How should FoodLink improve its own operations?”

It is also:

“How should FoodLink manage its position and relationships within the wider ecosystem on which its business depends?”

4.1 From Business Environment to Business Ecosystem

Business strategy has traditionally distinguished between the organization and its external environment. The organization is often treated as the focal unit. Everything outside it is described as the environment. This distinction remains useful. However, modern business environments are increasingly interconnected. A firm may simultaneously compete with one organization while cooperating with it in another activity.

• A supplier may also become a platform partner.
• A customer may also create content or data that improves the firm’s service.
• A technology provider may become strategically indispensable.
• These relationships make the ecosystem concept increasingly useful.

Defining a Business Ecosystem: A business ecosystem can be described as a network of organizations and stakeholders whose activities are interdependent and whose interactions contribute to the creation, delivery, exchange, or capture of value.Typical ecosystem actors may include:

• focal firms;
• customers;
• suppliers;
• competitors;
• complementors;
• distributors;
• financial institutions;
• regulators;
• communities;
• technology providers;
• data providers;
• digital platforms.

The ecosystem concept emphasizes relationships rather than simply lists of actors.

Traditional Environmental View versus Ecosystem View: A traditional environmental view might represent the firm as:

Organization: surrounded by:

Customers
Competitors
Suppliers
Government.

The ecosystem view instead emphasizes connections among those actors:

Customers ↔ Platform ↔ Suppliers

Suppliers ↔ Logistics

Platform ↔ Payment Providers

Government ↔ All Actors

Competitors ↔ Shared Technology Infrastructure.

This difference matters because business outcomes may emerge from interactions across the entire network.

4.2 Internal and External Business Environments

The business environment can still be divided broadly into internal and external dimensions.

Internal Environment: The internal environment includes factors located within the organization.Examples include:

• resources;
• structure;
• employees;
• culture;
• technology;
• leadership;
• processes;
• capabilities.

Managers have relatively greater influence over internal factors.

External Environment: The external environment consists of forces and actors outside the formal organizational boundary.Examples include:

• customers;
• competitors;
• suppliers;
• governments;
• technology;
• economic conditions;
• social trends;
• environmental pressures.

Organizations have less direct control over these factors. However, they may influence them through:

• partnerships;
• lobbying;
• innovation;
• industry alliances;
• ecosystem leadership.

Micro and Macro Environment: The external environment can be further divided into:

Micro Environment: Actors with relatively direct relationships to the firm.Examples:

• customers;
• suppliers;
• competitors;
• distributors;
• partners.

Macro Environment: Broader contextual forces.Examples:

• political conditions;
• economic trends;
• demographic change;
• technological development;
• environmental change;
• regulation.

Later chapters will analyze the macro environment in greater detail through frameworks such as PESTLE.

4.3 Actors in a Business Ecosystem

Business ecosystems contain multiple actors with different goals, capabilities, and forms of influence. Understanding these actors is central to ecosystem strategy.

4.3.1 Customers and Communities

Customers are not only buyers. In digital ecosystems, they may also be:

• data providers;
• reviewers;
• content creators;
• community participants;
• referral sources.

For example, customers on an online marketplace create:

• ratings;
• reviews;
• search data;
• purchase histories.

These activities influence other customers and improve platform algorithms. Customers therefore become active ecosystem participants.

Communities: Businesses also interact with broader communities.Communities may influence:

• legitimacy;
• reputation;
• social acceptance;
• labor supply;
• local regulation.

A company may be economically successful but face strong community opposition if its operations generate environmental harm or social conflict.

4.3.2 Suppliers and Partners

Suppliers provide critical inputs. Traditional supplier relationships focused mainly on:

• price;
• quality;
• delivery.

Ecosystem relationships may involve deeper cooperation. Examples include:

• co-development;
• information sharing;
• joint innovation;
• integrated logistics;
• shared technology.

A supplier may therefore become a strategic partner.

Strategic Dependency: Some suppliers become difficult to replace.Examples include:

• cloud platforms;
• semiconductor manufacturers;
• specialized software providers;
• proprietary data providers.

This creates strategic dependency. Managers must therefore ask:

How dependent are we on this partner?

and:

What happens if the relationship fails?

4.3.3 Competitors and Complementors

Competitors attempt to capture similar customers or value. However, ecosystem strategy introduces another important actor:

the complementor.

A complementor provides a product or service that increases the value of another organization’s offering. For example:

Smartphone: Apps.

Game Console: Games.

Electric Vehicle: Charging Network.

AI Model: Business Applications.

Complementors can significantly influence ecosystem success.

Coopetition: Organizations can sometimes compete and cooperate simultaneously.This is often described as coopetition.For example, two technology companies may compete in consumer markets while using common technical standards.Banks may compete for customers while sharing payment infrastructure.Coopetition is increasingly common in complex ecosystems.

4.3.4 Government and Regulators

Governments shape ecosystems through:

• laws;
• taxation;
• licenses;
• competition policy;
• data protection;
• labor regulation;
• environmental standards.

Regulation can reshape entire industries. For example, privacy regulation can alter digital advertising models. AI regulation can influence data use, transparency, and accountability. Government is therefore not simply an external constraint. It is an ecosystem actor.

4.4 Interdependence within Business Ecosystems

Interdependence means that the performance of one actor influences others. Consider a manufacturing ecosystem.

Supplier delay

↓

Production delay

↓

Customer delivery delay

↓

Customer dissatisfaction

↓

Future demand decline.

A supplier problem becomes a customer problem.

Shared Risks: Interdependence creates shared risk.Examples include:

• cyberattacks;
• supply disruptions;
• payment-system failures;
• regulatory changes;
• platform outages.

One actor’s failure can spread across the ecosystem. This is known as systemic risk.

Shared Opportunities: Interdependence also creates opportunities.For example:

A payment platform improves mobile-payment access.

↓

More customers adopt e-commerce.

↓

Retailers gain new customers.

↓

Logistics providers gain more deliveries.

↓

Banks process more transactions.

One innovation can create benefits across the ecosystem.

4.5 Technology Ecosystems

Modern business ecosystems are increasingly shaped by technology. A technology ecosystem may include:

• hardware providers;
• software developers;
• cloud platforms;
• data providers;
• cybersecurity firms;
• application developers;
• users;
• regulators.

Technology ecosystems often depend on standards and interoperability.

Standards: Standards allow different systems to work together.Examples include:

• payment standards;
• communication protocols;
• data formats;
• software interfaces.

A successful standard can create a large ecosystem around it.

APIs and Connectivity: Application Programming Interfaces, or APIs, allow systems to exchange data and functionality.For example:An e-commerce platform may use APIs for:

• payments;
• maps;
• delivery;
• customer authentication;
• AI services.

APIs reduce the need for firms to build every capability internally. But they also increase external dependence.

4.6 Digital and Platform Ecosystems

Digital platforms play a central role in modern ecosystems. A platform connects different groups. Examples include:

Buyers ↔ Sellers.

Passengers ↔ Drivers.

Developers ↔ Users.

Advertisers ↔ Audiences.

Platforms create value by facilitating interaction.

Multisided Markets: Many platforms serve multiple user groups.For example, an online marketplace may serve:

• buyers;
• sellers;
• advertisers;
• payment providers.

The value of the platform depends on participation from multiple sides.

Network Effects: A network effect occurs when the value of a product or service increases as more users join.For example:

More buyers

→ more sellers attracted.

More sellers

→ greater product variety.

Greater variety

→ more buyers.

This creates a reinforcing loop.

Data Network Effects: Digital ecosystems can also experience data-driven network effects.

More users

↓

More data

↓

Better recommendations

↓

Better user experience

↓

More users.

AI can strengthen this cycle.

4.7 Ecosystem Competition and Cooperation

Competition increasingly occurs between ecosystems, not only between individual firms. For example:

• One smartphone ecosystem may compete with another.
• One payment ecosystem may compete with another.
• One AI ecosystem may compete with another.

The strength of the entire ecosystem becomes strategically important.

Ecosystem Orchestration: Some firms act as ecosystem orchestrators.They coordinate relationships among multiple actors.An orchestrator may:

• set standards;
• control access;
• manage rules;
• distribute value;
• resolve conflicts.

This position can generate significant power.

Ecosystem Governance: Governance determines:

• who participates;
• what rules apply;
• how data are shared;
• how value is distributed;
• how disputes are resolved.

Poor governance can weaken ecosystem trust.

4.8 AI Ecosystems and Emerging Business Networks

Artificial intelligence is creating new ecosystems. AI does not operate as a single technology. It depends on multiple layers. A simplified AI ecosystem can include:

Infrastructure Layer

• chips;
• data centers;
• cloud computing.

Model Layer

• foundation models;
• specialized models.

Data Layer

• training data;
• business data;
• knowledge bases.

Application Layer

• chatbots;
• copilots;
• analytics;
• automation tools.

User Layer

• businesses;
• employees;
• customers.

Governance Layer

• regulators;
• standards bodies;
• organizational policies.

The strategic value of AI therefore depends on an ecosystem.

AI Value Chain: A simplified representation is:

Computing Infrastructure

↓

Models

↓

Data

↓

Applications

↓

Business Processes

↓

Customers

↓

Feedback.

Each layer depends on others.

AI Ecosystem Dependency: Organizations adopting AI may become dependent on:

• model providers;
• cloud providers;
• data vendors;
• specialized consultants;
• cybersecurity providers.

Managers must evaluate:

• vendor lock-in;
• data ownership;
• service continuity;
• cost;
• security;
• regulatory compliance.

Open and Closed AI Ecosystems: AI ecosystems can differ in openness.Some systems allow:

• open models;
• open tools;
• developer customization.

Others are more controlled. The strategic choice between open and closed ecosystems may affect:

• flexibility;
• cost;
• control;
• security;
• innovation.

4.9 Ecosystem Mapping

Managers can use ecosystem maps to understand complex business environments. An ecosystem map identifies:

• focal organization;
• customers;
• suppliers;
• partners;
• competitors;
• complementors;
• platforms;
• regulators;
• technology providers.

Relationships are then mapped.

Example: Digital Bank Ecosystem: A digital bank may interact with:

Customers

↔ Mobile App

↔ Bank Systems

↔ Payment Networks

↔ Central Bank

↔ FinTech Partners

↔ Cloud Providers

↔ Cybersecurity Providers.

Mapping reveals dependencies.

4.10 Ecosystem Power and Dependency

Not all ecosystem actors possess equal power. Power can arise from control over:

• customers;
• technology;
• data;
• infrastructure;
• standards;
• distribution.

For example, a platform controlling access to millions of customers may exert significant bargaining power over small sellers.

Dependency Risk: High dependency can create vulnerability.Managers should evaluate:

Concentration

Do we depend on one provider?

Switching Cost

How difficult is replacement?

Criticality

How essential is the service?

Substitutability

Are alternatives available?

This type of analysis becomes increasingly important in digital ecosystems.

4.11 Ecosystem Resilience

Ecosystem resilience refers to the ability of interconnected actors to withstand disruption. Sources of disruption include:

• pandemics;
• cyberattacks;
• geopolitical conflict;
• natural disasters;
• technological failure.

Resilience may be improved through:

• diversification;
• backup suppliers;
• multiple technology providers;
• shared information;
• contingency plans.

4.12 Strategic Positioning within an Ecosystem

A firm must decide how it will participate. Possible positions include:

Orchestrator

Coordinates the ecosystem.

Platform Provider

Provides infrastructure for interaction.

Specialist

Provides a narrow but valuable capability.

Complementor

Enhances the value of other products.

Participant

Operates within rules established by others.

Each position involves different opportunities and risks.

4.13 Value Creation and Value Capture

Ecosystems create value collectively. But value creation and value capture are not identical. Many actors may contribute to value creation. Some may capture a larger share. For example, app developers may contribute innovation while a platform captures significant revenue through commissions. Managers must therefore ask:

• How is value created?
• Who captures it?
• Why?

4.14 Ecosystem Innovation

Innovation increasingly occurs across organizational boundaries. Examples include:

• joint research;
• open innovation;
• startup partnerships;
• university-industry collaboration;
• developer ecosystems.

Firms may innovate faster by accessing ecosystem capabilities.

4.15 Ecosystem Failure

Business ecosystems can fail. Causes may include:

• weak trust;
• unfair value distribution;
• poor governance;
• incompatible standards;
• dominant actors abusing power;
• inadequate customer adoption.

A technically strong ecosystem may still fail if relationships are poorly managed.

Emerging Economy and Bangladesh Perspective: The ecosystem perspective is particularly useful in emerging economies.Businesses may depend heavily on:

• infrastructure providers;
• informal networks;
• government policy;
• mobile financial services;
• logistics partners;
• international suppliers.

Consider Bangladesh’s e-commerce ecosystem. A typical firm may depend on:

• mobile internet;
• digital-payment platforms;
• banks;
• courier services;
• social-media platforms;
• suppliers;
• government regulation.

The quality of the entire ecosystem influences firm performance.

Example: Ready-Made Garment Ecosystem

Bangladesh’s garment sector can be viewed as an ecosystem involving:

International Buyers

↔ Manufacturers

↔ Textile Suppliers

↔ Workers

↔ Logistics Companies

↔ Banks

↔ Government

↔ International Standards Organizations.

Changes in one area can spread. For example:

Buyer sustainability requirements

↓

Factory investments

↓

Supplier changes

↓

Training requirements

↓

Cost structures.

Managerial Application: Ecosystem Analysis Framework: Managers can ask the following questions.

Actor Identification

Who are the important actors?

Dependency

Who do we depend on?

Power

Who controls critical resources?

Value

Who creates value?

Capture

Who captures value?

Risk

Where could ecosystem failure occur?

Cooperation

Where would partnerships help?

Competition

Who threatens our position?

Technology

Which external technologies are critical?

Governance

Who sets the rules?

Ethical Considerations

Ecosystem strategy also raises ethical questions. Dominant firms may use ecosystem power to disadvantage smaller participants. Algorithms may favor certain sellers. Platforms may control data unfairly. Workers may carry risks without receiving proportional benefits. Managers therefore need to consider:

• fairness;
• transparency;
• data rights;
• power imbalance;
• labor conditions;
• access.

A sustainable ecosystem requires trust.

Chapter Summary

Business organizations operate within ecosystems of interconnected actors. The ecosystem perspective expands traditional environmental analysis by emphasizing relationships, interdependence, networks, and shared value creation. Key actors include:

• customers;
• suppliers;
• competitors;
• complementors;
• governments;
• technology providers;
• platforms.

Digital platforms have made ecosystems more visible and powerful. Network effects can accelerate growth. AI ecosystems are emerging across multiple layers:

• infrastructure;
• models;
• data;
• applications;
• users;
• governance.

Organizations increasingly depend on external technology providers. This creates both opportunities and strategic risks. Ecosystem success requires more than competition. It often requires cooperation, coordination, trust, and governance. Strategic performance therefore depends not only on internal resources but also on the firm’s position within the wider ecosystem.

Key Terms

Business Ecosystem-A network of interdependent organizations and stakeholders involved in value creation and exchange.

Focal Firm-The organization at the center of an ecosystem analysis.

Complementor-An organization whose products or services increase the value of another firm’s offering.

Coopetition-Simultaneous competition and cooperation.

Platform-A system connecting multiple participant groups.

Network Effect-An increase in value as participation grows.

Data Network Effect-Improvement in service as more users generate more data.

Ecosystem Orchestrator-An actor that coordinates ecosystem relationships.

Ecosystem Governance-Rules and mechanisms regulating ecosystem participation.

Systemic Risk-Risk that spreads across interconnected actors.

Vendor Lock-In-Dependence on a provider that is difficult to replace.

Ecosystem Resilience-Ability of an ecosystem to withstand disruption.

Review Questions

1. What is a business ecosystem?
2. How does an ecosystem differ from the traditional external environment?
3. Who are the major actors in a business ecosystem?
4. What is a complementor?
5. What is coopetition?
6. What are network effects?
7. What is a platform ecosystem?
8. How does AI create new ecosystems?
9. What is ecosystem governance?
10. What is systemic risk?
11. Why can vendor lock-in create strategic risk?
12. How can a firm improve ecosystem resilience?
13. What is ecosystem orchestration?
14. Why may firms compete as ecosystems rather than as individual organizations?

Critical Thinking Questions

• Can a company possess strong internal capabilities and still fail because of ecosystem weakness?
• Should firms attempt to reduce all external dependencies?
• What makes a complementor strategically important?
• How can network effects create competitive advantage?
• Can ecosystem dominance become harmful?
• What strategic risks arise when organizations depend heavily on cloud and AI providers?
• How can small firms maintain bargaining power within a platform ecosystem?
• Should governments regulate dominant digital ecosystems more aggressively?

Applied Case Study: ShopSphere and the Marketplace Ecosystem

ShopSphere is a fictional online marketplace. It connects buyers with thousands of small sellers. The company provides:

• payment processing;
• advertising;
• logistics;
• AI recommendations.

As ShopSphere grows, sellers become increasingly dependent on the platform. The company changes its algorithm. Large sellers receive more visibility because they generate more sales data. Smaller sellers complain that competition has become unfair. ShopSphere introduces paid advertising tools. Sellers who pay gain more visibility. Customers appreciate the platform’s convenience but begin noticing reduced product diversity. Government regulators investigate whether ShopSphere is abusing its market power. Meanwhile, a global cloud provider raises its service charges. ShopSphere’s operating costs increase. The CEO realizes that the company’s competitive position depends on relationships with sellers, customers, technology providers, advertisers, logistics firms, and regulators.

Case Questions

1. Identify the major actors in ShopSphere’s ecosystem.
2. Which actors possess the most power?
3. What network effects exist?
4. What data network effects exist?
5. Why are small sellers vulnerable?
6. How could algorithmic decisions affect ecosystem trust?
7. What strategic risks arise from cloud-provider dependency?
8. What role should regulation play?
9. How could ShopSphere create a healthier ecosystem?
10. Is ShopSphere competing as an individual firm or as an ecosystem?

Practical Exercise: Create an Ecosystem Map

Choose one industry. Examples:

• banking;
• e-commerce;
• education;
• healthcare;
• telecommunications.

Identify:

• focal firm;
• customers;
• suppliers;
• competitors;
• complementors;
• regulators;
• technology providers;
• platforms;
• financial institutions;
• communities.

Draw relationships among the actors. Then identify:

• three dependencies;
• two risks;
• two opportunities;
• one potential ecosystem partner.

AI-Assisted Learning Exercise

Select a real business. Ask a generative AI system to identify:

• ecosystem actors;
• dependencies;
• complementors;
• network effects;
• regulatory risks;
• technology dependencies;
• AI ecosystem relationships.

Then critically evaluate:

1. Did AI overlook any informal relationships?
2. Which dependencies require factual verification?
3. Did AI confuse suppliers with complementors?
4. Did AI identify power relationships correctly?
5. Which relationships may change over time?

Learning Purpose

The goal is to use AI as an ecosystem-mapping assistant while recognizing that managerial judgment and evidence remain essential.

Suggested Figure 4.1

Business Ecosystem Structure

Customers

↕

Focal Firm

↔ Suppliers

↔ Complementors

↔ Competitors

↔ Technology Providers

↔ Regulators

↔ Communities

Suggested Figure 4.2

Digital Platform Ecosystem

Buyers

↘

Platform

↗

Sellers

↓

Payment Providers

↓

Logistics

↓

Data and AI Services

Suggested Figure 4.3

AI Ecosystem Layers

Infrastructure

↓

Models

↓

Data

↓

Applications

↓

Business Processes

↓

Users

↓

Governance

Suggested Figure 4.4

Ecosystem Network Effect

More Users

↓

More Participants

↓

More Data

↓

Better Services

↓

Higher Value

↓

More Users

Chapter Conclusion

The business environment is increasingly best understood as an ecosystem rather than as a collection of disconnected external forces. Customers, suppliers, competitors, complementors, regulators, technology providers, platforms, and communities interact continuously. These relationships create both opportunities and dependencies.

Digital technologies have made ecosystems more interconnected. Platforms create powerful network effects. AI further deepens these relationships through shared infrastructure, data, models, applications, and governance. This means that future managers must think beyond the boundaries of the firm. The strategic unit of analysis may increasingly become:

Firm + Partners + Platforms + Technology + Stakeholders + Ecosystem Relationships

The central lesson of this chapter is therefore:

A business does not compete alone; it competes through the strength, position, and resilience of the ecosystem around it.

The next chapter, Complexity, Uncertainty and Dynamic Business Systems, examines why these interconnected ecosystems create nonlinear change, uncertainty, VUCA/BANI conditions, strategic turbulence, and the need for adaptive organizations.

References and Further Reading

Adner, R. (2017). Ecosystem as structure: An actionable construct for strategy. Journal of Management, 43(1), 39-58.

Adner, R. (2021). Winning the right game: How to disrupt, defend, and deliver in a changing world. MIT Press.

Brandenburger, A. M., & Nalebuff, B. J. (1996). Co-opetition. Currency Doubleday.

Iansiti, M., & Levien, R. (2004). The keystone advantage: What the new dynamics of business ecosystems mean for strategy, innovation, and sustainability. Harvard Business School Press.

Jacobides, M. G., Cennamo, C., & Gawer, A. (2018). Towards a theory of ecosystems. Strategic Management Journal, 39(8), 2255-2276.

Moore, J. F. (1993). Predators and prey: A new ecology of competition. Harvard Business Review, 71(3), 75-86.

Parker, G. G., Van Alstyne, M. W., & Choudary, S. P. (2016). Platform revolution. W. W. Norton & Company.

Teece, D. J. (2018). Profiting from innovation in the digital economy. Research Policy, 47(8), 1367-1387.

Tiwana, A. (2014). Platform ecosystems: Aligning architecture, governance, and strategy. Morgan Kaufmann.

Williamson, P. J., & De Meyer, A. (2012). Ecosystem advantage: How to successfully harness the power of partners. California Management Review, 55(1), 24-46.